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HRAB 10-17-89 Meeting AgendaCOUNTY of FREDERICK Department of Planning and Development 703/665-5651 FAX 703/667-0370 MEMORANDUM TO: Frederick County Historic Resources Board FROM: Kris C. Tierney, Deputy Director RE: leetinrj A'Totice and Agenda DATE: October 12, 1989 There will be a .eeting or the Frederick County Historic Resources Board at 7:30 pm, on Tuesday, October 17, 1939, in the TREASURER'S OFFICE, conference room of the Old County Court House, 9 Court Square Winchester, Virginia. Please let rye know if you are unable to attend. AGENDA 1. Discussion of proposed History section for 1990 update of the county's Comprehensive Plan. 2. Discussion of review criteria 3. Begin list of potential sites for recognition. 4. Other 9 Court Square - P.O. Box 601 - Winchester, Virginia - 22601 OCTOBER 17 AGENDA ITEMS 1. Attached is the proposed text for the 1990 update of the Comprehensive Plan for the Board's review and comments. 2. The review criteria used for National Register nominations which were discussed at the last meeting have been modified slightly so that they might be adopted for use by the Board. 3. The Board needs to begin to compile a list of sites which have the potential of being recognized as historically significant on a county wide basis. 4. Other. HISTORY For 12,000 years a sparse population of Indians lived in this area, but many more traveled through on the Indian Path from New York and Pennsylvania to winter in Georgia and South Carolina. The first Europeans to come through the Shenandoah Valley were Jesuit mis- sionaries in 1632, and details of this wilderness area were first shown on a map by a Frenchman, Samuel de Champlain. English ownership of Frederick County was originally by the Virginia Company but was taken over by the Crown in 1624. In 1649, Charles II granted seven royalist supporters the land "bounded by and within the heads" of the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers. By 1681, Thomas, the Second Lord Culpeper, owned most of this original land grant. After he died in 1689, his daughter married Thomas, the Fifth Lord Fairfax, and later, their son Thomas, the Sixth Lord Fairfax, inherited the whole landgrant. By the 1650's various traders, trappers, and explorers were coming to the Shenandoah Valley. Dr. John Lederer from Hamburg Germany documented his visit to the Valley in 1670 in his diary. English colonel, Cadwallader Jones, explored the central Valley in 1673, and in 1716, Governor Alexander Spotswood and his fifty "Knights of the Golden Horseshoe" crossed into the Valley through Swift Run Gap and returned with glowing accounts. Englishmen settled the piedmont, then pushed west by foot and horse through passes in the Blue Ridge, and many more German and Scotch -Irish settlers came down the valleys from Philadelphia and Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Some of the earliest settlers were Quakers who built the Hopewell Friends Meeting House which still stands near Clearbrook. These settlers were attracted by the fertile soils and the abundant forest and water resources. The Government of Colonial Virginia wanted this wilderness settled as quickly as possible, as a buffer against Indians, but Robert "King" Carter, Lord Fairfax"s agent, was settling Fairfax's land slowly in large plantations. The government of Virginia had chartered counties in the landgrant as settlement spread up the Northern Neck and west through the land grant. Virginia began to argue that Fairfax's landgrant ended at the Blue Ridge, and began granting up to 1,000 acres each to settler families west of the Blue Ridge. 9 Virginia gave particular developers the right to recruit settlers and sell them up to 1,000 acres per family within a general "grant" area. Each parcel would revert to Virginia unless settled with a house and orchard within two years. Abraham Hollingsworth settled near the site of Abrams Delight in about 1729. Owen Thomas and Jeremiah Smith came to Back Creek in 1730 and settled on 806 acres granted in Thomas' name. Smith left and returned with a wife before 1741. His log cabin is now part of a house west of Back Creek and south of Route 50. In 1732, Jost Hite settled 16 families on his 5,000 acre "grant" and built Hite's fort at Bartonville. The Indian Path became the Great Wagon Road and Indians were dispossessed westward by treaty and force of arms. Frederick County was created from western Orange County by the House of Burgesses on December 21, 1738 and was named after the Prince of Wales. James Wood, County Surveyor for Orange County, platted a town at the County seat, which he named Winchester, after his birthplace. It consisted of 26 half -acre lots and three streets within 1300 acres, which he claimed as wilderness land owned by Virginia. Those streets are now Loudoun, Boscawen and Cameron Streets. County government in Virginia was originally by self-perpetuating courts. Frederick County's Court was proclaimed and organized in 1743, and its officials took their oaths of office on November 11 of that year. It first met at the surveying office of its clerk, James Wood, at the site on which James Wood's son Robert built Glen Burnie. By 1743, the Frederick County court admitted that Lord Fairfax's land included the County. At the age of 16, George Washington was a member of a surveying party that came to Frederick County for Lord Fairfax in 1748. In 1749, Lord Fairfax moved to Frederick County and built his home, Greenway Court, at White Post. He accepted Wood's 1,300 acre claim and other additional lots at Winchester. Eventually, eleven other counties would be created from the 3,824 square miles included in the original Frederick County. George Washington was associated with Winchester and Frederick County between the years of 1748 and 1765. Early during those years he maintained a surveying office in Winchester. During the French and Indian War, he was given a Commission and later made Commander in Chief of the colonial forces with headquarters in Winchester. Washington held his first elective offices representing Frederick County, having been elected to the house of Burgesses in 1758 and 1761. Winchester played an important part in the American Revolution. Local riflemen under the command of Daniel Morgan were among the first to join the fight. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries life in the current Frederick County area centered around small family farms. Local farms tended to be smaller than farms to the east. During this period wheat production became the center of the local economy, along with cattle production. In 1820, there were fifty flour mills in Frederick County along with numerous sawmills, tanneries, and other business activities. Economic life was centered around Winchester and other local towns including Stephens City, Middletown, Kernstown, and Gainesboro. There were a large number and diversity of craftsmen and merchants in these towns. The strongest influence on the local economy was the Great Wagon Road, which later became Route 11 south and which carried settlers and travelers from Philadelphia south through the Valley and to the west. Activity associated with this road made Winchester one of the largest towns in western Virginia. Frederick County played a significant part in the Civil War. The northern Shenandoah Valley supplied food, livestock, horses, and soldiers to the southern cause. The Valley was also important because of its strategic location in relation to Washington D.C. The town of Winchester changed hands in the war about 70 times, an average of once every three weeks for four years. Major local battles included the First Battle of Kernstown in March of 1862, during which General Stonewall Jackson suffered his only tactical defeat during the Valley Campaign but did succeed in keeping Union troops in the Valley from leaving to reinforce McClellan on the peninsula. In May of 1862, Jackson's army defeated the Union troops at the First Battle of Winchester. In the Second Battle of Winchester in 1863, confederate troops successfully attacked and defeated Union troops occupying forts on the western side of Winchester. Union troops were again defeated at the second battle of Kernstown in 1864. At the Third Battle of Winchester General Philip Sheridan's Union troops successfully attacked confederate troops at Winchester. With the high numbers of losses on both sides, a new war of attrition was to begin in the Valley from which the southern forces would never recover. For three weeks in 1864, Sheridan's troops undertook the infamous "Burning" to end Confederate strength in the Valley. Union troops burned 2,000 barns, 120 mills, and a half a million bushels of grain and confiscated 50,000 head of livestock in the Valley. Virginia's richest valley was left desolate. 7 In October of 1864, Jubal Early's Confederate troops were entrenched south of Cedar Creek. The Union troops were encamped just north of Cedar Creek. A surprise attack by the Confederates drove the Union troops to the north. General Sheridan rallied his troops and attacked, driving the Confederates back across Cedar Creek. This victory helped boost Union morale and helped President Lincoln win reelection. After the war, old economic activities resumed and new activities began. New businesses included a tannery, dairying, farm machinery, and shipping. A variety of agricultural activities continued. Fruit growing and processing became particularly important early in the twentieth century. Economic activities continued to diversify in the twentieth century to include a number of manufacturing activities including plastics, automotive products, containers and other products. Activities continued to be based on the accessibility of the area and on north -south travel along the route that was once the Great Wagon Road and is now Route 11 and Interstate 81. Historic Preservation There are a number of historic sites in Frederick County. The following sites are listed on both the Virginia Landmarks Register and the National Register: Belle Grove Hopewell Friends Meeting House Monte Vista Springdale House and Mill Complex Willa Cather House (birthplace) St. Thomas Episcopal Church (Middletown) There are a number of other historic sites in the County. also several Civil War battlefield sites that played an role in that conflict. The Civil War Sites include the Battlefields: First and Second Battles of Winchester Third Battle of Winchester First and Second Battles of Kernstown Cedar Creek Fortifications: Star Fort Collier Redoubt Parkins Mill Battery Entrenchments• D There are important following: Nineteenth Corps Line 1864 - 1865 Winter Line There is a need to clearly locate, recognize, and designate all significant historic sites in the County. As the County develops, there is a need to find methods to protect the most significant sites. The Winchester -Frederick County Historical Society is undertaking an inventory of local historic resources. This project will per- manently record the location of all sites. Such sites could be recognized by the County through the awarding of historic resource plaques to property owners using an individual application process. The County would review such applications annually using specific criteria. In addition, the extensive structures and land related to the Civil War should be recognized through appropriate docu- mentation and signs. In 1989, the Board of Supervisors establisned a Historic Resources Advisory Committee to provide detailed information on historic resources to the Planning Commission and Board of Supervisors. The Historic Resources Advisory Committee is charged with the following: Developing standards concerning which sites are significant. Using the standards to recognize particular sites. Developing recommendations on methods to preserve recognized sites. Reviewing particular development proposals. Developing recommendations onthe use ofhistoric resources inassociation with tourism, economic development and education. Zoning or other regulatory methods can be used to help protect the most important resources. In addition, incentives allowed by law for the rehabilitation, adaptive reuse or restoration of historic structures should be considered. Care should be taken in the design and provision of streets and utilities in historic areas to maintain the historical integrity and character of historic areas. The protection of historic areas should be carefully considered in establishing new roads. Land use patterns should be planned that are harmonious with the historic environment. 9 Historic preservation can play an important role in economic development. Tourism is an important local industry. The possibility of improving the attractiveness of the area to tourists should be considered in a systematic manner. The protection of historic resources will play an important role in this effort. Historic Preservation Policy A number of historic preservation issues have been identified, including the following: The need to identify and designate historic sites The economic importance of historic resources The need to develop methods to protect historic resources. The following are policies for historic preservation. Goal - Protect the historic resources in Frederick County. Strategy 1 - Inventory and designate historic sites in the County. Strategy 2 - Study and adopt methods to preserve historic resources. Strategy 3 - Incorporate historic resources in efforts to promote tourism. Strategy 4 - Carefully consider the impacts of land use, development and facility decisions on historic resources. Implementation Methods: 1. Undertake a complete investigation, documentation, evalu- ation, registration, and recognition of historic sites. Recognize sites with a process of plaques and signs. 2. Continue touse the Historic Resources Advisory Committee to assist the County with information and recommendations on historic resources. 3. Study possible methods for protecting historic resources including the designations of historic districts, zoning methods, tax incentives, and impact analysis. Voluntary methods and methods involving incentives are preferred. Carefully consider the impacts of decisions concerning land use, roads, 10 utilities, and facilities. Develop design standards for historic areas and locations. Strong support should be given to private initiatives. 4. Include concerns for historic preservation and tourism in economic development strategies. 11 FREDERICK COUNTY CRITIRIA FOR EVALUATION OF HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE The following criteria are virtually the same as those established by the National Park Service for evaluation of the historic significance of properties, sites etc. considered for nomination to the National Register. These slightly modified standards are those which will be used by the Frederick County Historic Resources Advisory Board to evaluate county properties for designation as historically significant. Criterion A: Properties may be eligible for the recognition if they are associated with events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our local, state or national history. guidelines 1. A property may be associated with either of two types of events; a specific event marking an important moment in history; or a series of events that made a significant contribution to the development of a community, the state, or the nation. a property may also be associated with both types of events. 2. The significant contribution of any specific event or series of events to the broad patterns or themes of the national, state, or local history must be demonstrated. 3. A property associated with an event or events must be a good representative of the event or events and of the larger theme or broad pattern of which they are a part. 4. It should be possible to document through accepted means of historical research that the property under consideration did exist at the time of a specific event or series of events and that the property was associated with those events. 1 Evaluation Critiria Criterion B: Properties may be eligible for recognition if they are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past. guideline 1. Persons "significant in our past" means individuals whose activities have been important within significant themes in the national, state, or local history. 2. The individual(s) must be specifically identified. 3. A property's association with an individual should be documented by accepted methods of historical research that can include written or oral history. 4. Each property associated with a significant individual will be compared to other properties with the same associations to identify those properties that are good representatives of the individual's historic contribution. Properties that best illustrate an individual's contributions are generally properties associated with the individual's adult or productive life. Properties associated with an individual's formative years may also qualify if it can be demonstrated that the individual's activities during this period had historical significance. 5. Length of association should be identified and may be an important factor when many properties with similar associations survive. 6. Properties associated with living persons are generally considered not eligible for recognition. 7. A basic test of the integrity of a property significant under Criterion B is whether the important person would recognize the property as it exists today. 2 Evaluation Critiria Criterion C: Properties may be eligible for recognition if they embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess the high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction guideline 1. The features or traits of a design or construction that tended to recur in particular types, periods, or methods of construction can be said to characterize those kinds of properties or construction practices in the past. To "embody distinctive characteristics" a property must clearly represent the type, period, or method of construction. That is, it must enhance our understanding of the class of resources of which it is a part. A significant property clearly illustrates (1) the pattern of what was common to the class of resources; (2) the individuality or variation that occurred within the class; (3) the evolution of that class over a period of time; or (4) the transition between that class and others. 2. The phrase "type, period, or method of construction" refers to properties related by cultural tradition, or function; by date of construction or style; or by choice of materials and technology. 3. High artistic values may be expressed in many ways, including areas as diverse as community design or planning, engineering, and sculpture. 4. A master is a figure of generally recognized greatness in a field, a known craftsman of consummate skill, or an anonymous craftsman whose work is distinguishable from others by its characteristic style or quality. 5. A district must be a significant entity. It must be important for historical, architectural, archeological, engineering, or cultural values. Therefore, districts which are significant will usually meet the last portion of Criterion C plus Criterion A, Criterion b, other portions of Criterion C, or Criterion D. 3 Evaluation Critiria 6. A district must be a distinguishable entity. The district as a whole must have a character or a coherence that makes it an identifiable historic environment and differentiates it form adjacent areas. 7. A district is different from the other categories of historic properties because a district may be significant as a whole even though it may be composed of components, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that lack individual distinction. A district's identity results from the groupings of features and from the relationships among those features. These relationships convey the sense of the historic environment. A district may be a grouping of archeological sites related primarily by their being common components in a defensible research design, and often will not visually represent a specific historic environment. 8. A property can be significant under Criterion C either for the way it was originally constructed or crafted, or for the way it was adapted at a later point in time; or for the way it illustrates changing tastes, attitudes, and uses over a period of time in the past. 9. A property may be significant because it represents either an unusual or a widely practiced type or method of construction. It may have been innovative or influential, or it may have been traditional or vernacular; the significance of the property is determined by considering the property within its context. Criterion D: Properties may be eligible for recognition if they have yielded, or may be likely to yield, information important in prehistory or history. guideline 1. The verification of a human origin, modification, or utilization of the property must be part of the consideration of the property's ability to qualify under Criterion D. 2. In general, the property's cultural affiliation and/or period of creation or use should be identifiable. 4 Evaluation Critiria 3. While most often applied to archeological sites, Criterion D may sometimes apply to districts, buildings, structures, and other objects that contain important information. In order for properties to be eligible under Criterion D, the properties themselves must be, or must have been, the principal source of the important information. 4. Properties that yielded important information in the past and that no longer retain additional research potential (such as completely excavated archeological sites) must be assessed essentially as historic sites like properties eligible under Criterion A, significant for associative values related to: (1) the importance of the data gained, or (2) the impact of the property's role in the history of the development of anthropology/archeology or other relevant disciplines. As is the case for other historic sites, the site must retain the ability to convey its association as the former repository of important information, the former location of important events, or the representative of important trends. 5. The current existence of appropriate physical remains must be ascertained in considering the property's ability to yield important information. Properties that have been partially excavated or otherwise disturbed, and that are being considered for their potential to yield additional important information must be shown to retain that potential in their remaining portions. 6a. Important information is that which can be shown to relate constructively to a research design addressing such areas as current data gaps, or defensible new models or theories; priority areas identified under state or federal agency management plan; or corrections of misapprehensions in our understanding of history or prehistory. The importance of information which a property may yield must be evaluated within the appropriate comparative context- i.e., what is already known from similar properties or other pertinent information sources. The information likely to be obtained from a particular property may be important if, for a given area, the information is unavailable elsewhere; or because it would confirm or supplement in an important way information obtained from other 5 Evaluation Critiria sources. In some cases however, the existence of other information sources, such as modern historic written accounts or other documentation, or scholarly analyses of other similar properties in the area, may render the information contained within the property less important, with the result that the property will not be eligible under Criterion D. b. Having established the importance of the information that may be recovered, it is necessary to be explicit in demonstrating the connection between the important information and a specific property. One approach is to determine if specific important research questions may be answered by the data contained in the property. Research questions may be related to property -specific issues, to broader questions about a large geographic area, or to theoretical issues independent of any particular geographic location. These questions may be derived from the academic community or from preservation programs at the local, regional, state, or national level. Research questions are usually developed as part of a "research design" which specifies not only the questions to be asked, but also the type of data needed to supply the answers, and often the techniques needed to recover the data. C. To support the assertion that a property has the data necessary to provide the important information, the property should be investigated with techniques sufficient to establish the presence of relevant data categories. What constitutes appropriate investigation techniques would depend upon the specific circumstances including the property's location, condition, and the research questions being addressed, and could range from surface survey (or photographic survey of buildings) to the application of remote sensing techniques, or intensive subsurface testing. Justification of the research potential of a property may be based on analogy to another better known property if sufficient similarities exist to establish the appropriateness of the analogy. A Evaluation Critiria 7. The assessment of integrity for properties considered for information potential depends on the data requirements of the applicable research design, and may differ from the evaluation of properties considered under Criterion A,B, or C. A property possessing information potential does not need to visually recall an event, person, process, or construction technique. Instead it is more important that the significant data that the property contains remain in a sufficiently intact condition to yield the expected important information, if the appropriate study techniques are employed. INFORMATIONAL ITEMS 2 Hugh C. Miller V/,/, 2.1 No. 6 Biologists of the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries get ready to examine an animal captured for a small,mammal survey,- one of several projects made possible by funds con- tributed to Virginia's Nongame Wildlife and Endangered Species Program., A -BRIGHTER FUTURE FOR VIRGINIA'S PAST irginia's past can look forward to a brighter future with the creation of a new state agency- 'Me gencyThe Department of Histori" Resources is dedicated to preserving historic sites in Virginia, Formerly, it was a division within the Department of Conservation and Historic Resources, which was renamed the Department of Conservation and Recreation. Two Governor -appointed boards will carry out various histo-ric preservation functions and assist in establishing policy for the new Department. The Board of Historic Resources will perform many duties of the former Virginia Historic Land- marks andmarks Board, including designation of historic buildings, sites, and districts; establishment of preservation practices for the care and manage- ment of designated landmarks; approval of new historical highway markers; and acquisition of designated landmarks and sites or. preservation ,easements through gifts. The Board will also assist in developing new programs, such as expanded education in historic preservation and promotion as well as protection of tourism assets. Members are: Jack Zehmer of Richmond; Chairman, George Herbert of Norfolk, Sandra Speiden of Orange, Nancy Hirst of McLean, Arnold Henderson of Richmond, John Broadway of Richmond, and George C. Freeman, Jr, of Richmond. The Virginia Historic Preservation Foundation was created Iby the General Assembly to acquire historic properties, retain perpetual easements on them, and resell.the protected resources to appro- priate persons, firms, or corporations. The Foun- dation is directed to use its funds only to protect properties on or eligible for the Virginia Land- marks Register. Members appointed to the Foun- dation's Board are David Brown of Staunton, Chairman, Francis Foster of Richmond, Robert Lambeth, of Bedford, Anne Worrell of Char- lottesville, Patricia Zontine of Winchester, and Kevin Burke of Reston. The Department's staff is headed by Hugh C. Miller, a nationally known expert on architectural conservation, preservation, and planning. Former Chief Historical Architect for the National Park Service, Miller serves as the Commonwealth's State Historic Preservation Officer. He is a Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. "This new Department, with,its Boards," Miller said, "is now, better positioned to find, evaluate, and encourage protection of the significant tangi- ble remains of Virginia's heritage—below and above ground." H. Bryan Mitchell, former Director of the Divi- sion of Historic Landmarks, is now Director of Preservation Programs and the Deputy State His- toric Preservation Officer for the Department. A Preservation Services section will survey and designate landmarks, conduct environmental re- views of state and federal projects, and administer federal tax credits for renovation projects. It also oversees the Department's recently opened re- gional office in Roanoke. Chief of the section. is Dr. Robert Carter. "This new unit will emphasize client services, by offering expanded financial and technical assis- tance to local governments, school systems, and property owners," said Carter. The Department's ` grant programs and its preservation easement pro- gram are also under his supervision. Future Department plans include the develop~ ment of an archaeological research center—in- cluding staff members assigned to the excavation of threatened sites and archaeological survey and permit programs. Dr. Catherine Slusser, State Ar- chaeologist, will be in charge of the center. HELP BOOST WILDLIFE irginians can help bolster declining I I Vwildlife ,populations by donating money to the Virginia Nongame Wildlife and En- dangered Species Program. State wildlife officials are urging increased public support of the program, since contributions to the Nongame Wildlife effort have dropped sharply in recent years. Here are three ways Virginians can help pre- serve nongame wildlife: • Designate part of your state income tax re- fund. When you receive your next state income tax form, check off the Nongame Wildlife Fund to receive some. of your refund. • Buy a hunting license. A portion of the li- cense revenues goes to nongame preservation ef- forts. fforts. Even if you don't hunt, you can still buy a license and help wildlife. Also, license sales en- able Virginia to qualify for matching federal funds for this and other wildlife projects. • Send a donation directly to the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, 4010 West Broad Street, P. 0. Box 11104, Richmond, VA 23230- 1104. Make your check payable to the Treasurer of Virginia and indicate that you want to support the Nongame Wildlife Program. Some of Virginia's most endangered wildlife species are recovering with the help of combined state and federal funds and private donations to the Nongame Wildlife Program. They include the bald eagle, peregrine falcon, the big -eared bat, and the Delmarva fox squirrel. Nongame projects also include small mammal surveys, the breeding bird atlas, and Project WILD education, ' lil i ..___ -a \ yr �• ILA Ij' ?_fLf{ iI '1I�!l F N=s'�X�.1I�1 I _EyEMM ,I I � i * i•� tFl •;, t �` WIIIII�I IIII 'r'r-za 3 �lg�'� { I 1 aFt Emil, �+:-^T IF, "r .": I.:."� .r;•1 1 u. ': i�.... nXm nXr 11 a1 I r'S - _ I',II T•— "�# SIF'.+>Ilinmmi:-nn�-e. '. II'I II�� /. �t .•i �I •�- �}��.r�IIIM:.UWIYIIIM �Xy: .aveu��. 1` G ��IIIY I �. _i ,>AIyM X,ltl,..�1-L,.����•i- 5 �� ' OF CONTENTS GENERALLY SPEAKING: DESCRIPTIVE TERMS Ho USE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 _AYS AND STORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 PLANS, ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 OW IT HANGS TOGETHER: CONSTRUCTION TERMS OODEN HOUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 :ASONRY HOUSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 III. SEEN FROM THE OUTSIDE: TERMS FOR EXTERIOR PARTS :'_COFS, DORMERS, ROOFTOP PROJECTIONS AND CHIMNEYS . . . . 12 :ORCHES, PORTICOES, STOOPS AND BALCONIES . . . . . . . . 15 ORNICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 ARCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 DOORS AND DOORWAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 I NDOWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 IV. INNER WORKINGS: TERMS FOR INTERIOR PARTS FIREPLACES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 STAIRCASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21. i0ODWORK, DECORATIVE TREATMENTS AND FINISHES . . . . . . 21 V. CLASSICAL ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Sources of Illustrations: American Architect and Building News: Cover (issue of 24 February 1877); fig. 3 (issue of 8 July 1876); fig. 14 (issue of 10 February 1877); Articles of the Carpenters Company of Philadelphia and Their Rules for Measuring and Valuing House -Carpenters Work, Philadelphia: Carpenters Company, 1786: figs. 6, 12; A. J. Bicknell, Detail, _Cottage and Constructive Architecture, New York; A. J. Bicknell & Co., 1873: fig. 5; A. W. Cobb, Suburban and Country_ Houses, New York: William T. Comstock, 1893: fig. 3a; Cummings & Miller, Architecture: Designs for Street Fronts, Suburban Houses and Cottages, 4th ed., Toledo: S. Barley & Eager, 1868: fig. 15, lower; Charles W. Elliott, The Book of American Interiors, Boston: James R. Osgood & Co., 1876: fig. 21; Edmond V. Gillon, Jr., Ed., Early Illustrations and Views of American Architecture, New York: Dover Publ., Inc. 1971: figs. 1, 11; Penelope Hartshorne (Batcheler) and Arnold Nicholson, Notes on the Design and Architectural Detail of Philadel- phia Row Houses 1740-1850, Philadelphia: Old Philadelphia Development Corp., 1964: fig. 15, upper; Historic American Buildings Survey: 4, 13, 20; James C. Massey: 4a, 7a, 9, 10, 17, 22; Palliser, Palliser & Co.: Palliser's American ArchitectureNew York: J. S. Ogilvie, 1988: fig. 7; Edward Shaw, Shaw's Civil Architecture, 6th ed., Boston John P. Jewett ,Co.,& 1852: fig. 16, back cover; William Rotch Ware, The Georgian Period, Boston: American Architect and Building News Co., 1899-1902: figs. 2, 8, 18, 19. INTRODUCTION This glossary is intended for the use of the old -house owner who wants to be able to talk easily about his home without first having to become an expert in architecture, architectural history or carpentry. It is not a dictionary, but a means of acquiring a beginning vocab- ulary of descriptive terms that refer to architectural features of older houses. The glossary is arranged in sections that correspond to the major aspects of the house. It includes explanations of approximately two hundred terms frequently encountered in restoring,' repairing or using older buildings. Whenever possible, verbal descriptions are supplemented by illustrations marked to show the parts described in the text. Because terms and meanings often vary from one geographical region to another, we have tried to use the ones that are most widely accepted and to include variant forms when appropriate. We are grateful to Constance M. Greiff and Roger W. Moss for their careful reading of the manuscript and for their many contributions to its clarity and usefulness. Preparation and publication of this glossary was made possible by a generous grant from the Atlantic Richfield Foundation. For more complete definitions, or to expand your working old -house vocabulary, you may wish to consult one of the specialized architectural dictionaries listed below. John Fleming, Hugh Honour and Nicholas Pevsner. The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture. Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc. 1966. Cyril M. Harris, Ed., Dictionary of Architecture and Construction. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. 1975. John Harris and Jill Lever. Illustrated Glossary of Architecture, 850-1830. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. 1966. Norman Morrison Isham. Early American Houses and A Glossary of Colonial Architectural Terms. The Walpole Society, 1928 and 1939 respectively; reprinted ed. in one vol., NewYork: 6aMapo Press, 1967. A. L. Osborne. A Dictionary of English Domestic Architecture. New York: Philosophical Library, Inc. 1956. Henry H. Saylor. Dictionary of Architecture. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1952. John S. Scott. A Dictionary of Building. Baltimore: Penguin Books. 1964. Maureen Stafford and Dora Ware. An Illustrated Dictionary of Ornament. New York: 5t. Martin's Press. 1974. Russell Sturgis. A Dictionary of Architecture and Building. New York: MacMillan Co. 1905. The Historic House Association of America is a national, non-profit, charitable and tax-exempt membership organization concerned with issues affecting private owners of historic properties in the United States. Organized in 1978 with assistance from the National Trust for Historic Preservation, the Association carries on a broad program of advice, seminars, conferences and publications to further the preservation of historic property in private ownership. 413TORIC HOUSE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA 1600 H atreet, N.W. yashington, D.C. 20006 3 Pediment Dormer Louvered Shutter: Party Wa between. Fanlight Fig. l a -Day rtUut, ROW OR PARTY WALL HOUSES ttic alf Story rd Story ?nd Story ;t Story sement Most old houses are VERNACULAR in origin, drawn from a relatively limited regional and traditional repertory of. shapes and plans that can be described according to a few basic categories. Even architect -designed houses, showing an ACADEMIC influence, will often fit into the same categories, particularly if they were built before the quest for "romantic" and "picturesque" effects led to the irregular shapes of the latter 19th century. HOUSE SHAPES The names of the most frequently encountered house shapes are virtually self -defining: SQUARE; RECTANGULAR; CENTRAL BLOCK WITH ONE WING; CENTRAL BLOCK WITH SYMMETRICAL WINGS: L-, T- and V -SHAPE. HOUSE TYPES Basic house types range from the large and elaborate MANSION to the humble CABIN, which, whether it be of brick, stone, frame or log construction, is a small dwelling less than two stories in height and composed of only one construction unit. Anything larger is a HOUSE. SADDLEBAG and DOGTROT CABINS are in each case really two separate construction units, joined in the first instance by a shared chimney wall and in the second by a covered passageway. The I HOUSE, common in the Midwest and parts of the South, is an unpretentious two-story building with a chimney at each of the two gable ends and either three or five openings in each story across the front. The CLASSIC I of the Midwest has five openings; the VIRGINIA I has only three. A persistent urban phenomenon is the ROW HOUSE (TOWNHOUSE, PARTY -WALL HOUSE), which is built up to the property line at both sides and shares a common wall with the adjoining houses. A DOUBLE or TWIN HOUSE is similar in concept but is connected to another building only on one side. The FIVE-PART GEORGIAN (or FIVE-PART PALLADIAN) HOUSE is a formal, highly symmetrical 18th -century mansion composed of a large, central main block connected by a colonnade or an enclosed section (HYPHEN) of lower height to a service wing at either side. The OCTAGON, or eight -sided, HOUSE enjoyed a surge of popularity in the middle of the 19th century. The term COTTAGE may refer to practically any small, informal residence of that period. By Attic Half Story 2nd Story �sz Story Raised Basement Balustrade Front Elevation: 5 --Bay Front with Projecting Center Say Fig• 2 FREE-STANDING GEORGIAN HOUSE Chimney with Flues Arcaded Together Dormer Scrolled Console 4 -Cornice Flat Arch Rusticated Quoins Palladian Window Belt Course Pedimented Frontispiece Double 3 -Panel Doors with Fanlight h Watertable Rusticated Base The early 20th -century FOURSQUARE HOUSE has four rooms on each of two floors and is, as the name suggests, square in shape. The BUNGALOW is typically marked by low, sweeping lines, wide, projecting eaves and a deep porch or veranda, although variations in which one or more Of these features is lacking abound. BAYS AND STORIES Visually, the width of a house is measured in BAYS, vertical divisions of the facade that most•frequently contain a single window but that may also be marked by columns, doors or other vertical features. Height is measured in STORIES, a more or less conjectural division Of vertical space within the building as indicated by horizontal divisions such as rows of windows or bands of brick or stone (BELT or STRING COURSES) running across the face of the building at the line between floors. The term FLOOR refers to the actual use of interior space --the number of stories observed_ from the outside may not coincide with the number of floors present on the inside. The space contained within the slope of, a building's roof is referred to as the ATTIC .(or GARRET). An ATTIC STORY (or HALF STORY) is a low story of living space just under the roof or above the main cornice of the house. Its presence is implied by dormer windows that Pierce the slope of the roof, by Half windows ranged along the front of the house just under the eaves, or by full windows at the top of the gable ends of the house. If there are not such windows, the attic cannot be counted in the height of the building. A BASEMENT is not generally counted as a story even if it is used as living space, since It is at least partially below ground. An exception is the RAISED, or ENGLISH, BASEMENT, which is primarily or entirely above ground level but below the principal living floor (which Is then called the FIRST FLOOR or, sometimes, the PIANO NOBILE). A CELLAR is more than fifty per cent below ground and is more often used for purposes of storage than for living. 5 Cres G Pal Attic Half Stoi COT Segmental 2nd Story 1st ' Paired' Doi: hung One -C One Li Mul Story Party Bay Win Raised Basemen -* -Front Elevation - 2 Bays Fig. 3 ROW HOUSE - ELEVATION, BAYS & STORIES Fig. 31 BUNGALOW ourse t M - n r7-7— BED ROCfv1 3=D ROOM ---- - - — - -- -------- - n ----___—--_ - --- - Lrn vMD FL. �- c �_-,---�-- - i �CEILNC�— , SEC= =LCOR P LAN a MALE `3'-�''-o• - ELEWTICN® R.ESTORFD ELE•ATiON AT PRESENT -- - -� �0zvE1k5 --- - CC CELL"*�_-- - ------ _ NORTH FRONT ELEVfiTION F S -70 It EDIWALE ILO, Plan: Center Hall Half Attic' Single Pile Story I +i'+--�-rr I I \ �'-2�S 3ti7 3'3i'3' -3'S'3'-4• N3.4-��'3'd�'3'-75 I.A LC i �00.Cw 7 h YLASTE0.� "'. LATER ADD 71CN1 J Iof , LOUNGE BAR KOOM O o i 1St Story, _ ri' V N I e m y wooD ,I HALL _ h I 11R 5Y CK vNLL gENT RE VNCeRPEWG BRICK®M � `o Ar,.E �=I�LL 'J _ � CrENTERED vNCER MApI ENT, �� I Cellar - - _ %--Foundation a' -z' 1a'- • - — CIRT FLM 1 ScgLES _L_��_. I SECTION FIRST FLOOR PLAN �,'-r-D' j rEl+Rr GEO. O.= DEL. 5ULE '!•-I'-O' SGALE ': g' -P -a .q' - r -a ML M 7NIQ Ot M11MM�KMiMlfci W1I THE I. OW R6GYATIpIiy NTU"Mi �` MIlTORK AM:Sl1GrM rrpT —1 HASSLER TAVERN NEAR PRINCETON ILLINOIS ILL -142 �'��• ��. uturolanAAs ono us+c� SVREAv GOvNTV wrrt I a Z wan Fig. 4 PLANS, ELEVATIONS AND SECTIONS A PLAN (FLOOR PLAN) is a drawing of a building's interior as it would appear if it were viewed from above. A SECTION slices through a building, room or detail vertically_:to show how it is constructed. An ELEVATION is a drawing on a vertical plane of a building, room or feature. It may represent any one of the external faces of a building (a FACADE). (The term elevation may also be used as a synonym for facade.) HOUSE TYPES AND PLANS 1 Side Hall.Main 8) �dain Block with I -House T -Shaped Plan Double Pile L or Wing Octagon Four -Square 7-T Center Hall Double Pile Fine -Part Georgian or Palladian Fig. 4a 7 BALLOON FRAME Fig. 5 BRACED FRAME CONSTRUCTION TERMS: WOODEN HOUSES Fig. 6 Ridge Rafter Rafter Plate Brace - Window Joist Stud Door 3111 Collar Rafter Plate Brace Girt Post Stud Sill BRACED -FRAME (or HEAVY -TIMBER) construction is characteristic of houses built before the mid 19th century. The weight of floors, walls and roof is borne by heavy horizontal beams (GIRTS) that run along the outer edges of the structure between massive wooden uprights (POSTS) at the corners. These elements may be supplemented by a heavy beam (the SUMMER) running across the width of the building and by beams that tie the house lengthwise at the roofline (PLATES) and provide support for the ends of the beams forming the slope of the roof (RAFTERS). The frame may be further strengthened by the use of diagonal BRACES. In heavy timber framing, JOISTS are smaller horizontal framing members between the girts and the summer to which floor or ceiling boards are nailed. The SILL is a heavy timber lying on the foundation of the building on which the upright members rest. The SLEEPER is a timber that lies directly on the ground rather than on a foundation and supports the floor boards. HALF TIMBERING is a variation on BRACED -FRAME construction in which the spaces between posts, girts and braces are filled with a NOGGING of brick or clay, which may then be stuccoed over, leaving the timbers exposed. In HORIZONTAL LOG CONSTRUCTION, entire lengths of timber, hewn square or left in the round, are laid one upon the other to form the exterior walls of houses, barns, cabins and other structures. The logs are notched at the ends to make them fit snugly together and the spaces between them are filled with stones, twigs or other solid materials (CHINKED) and then plastered with mud or lime (CAULKED) to provide a weather -tight surface. VERTICAL LOG (PALISADO) CONSTRUCTION is more rarely found in the United States. BALLOON FRAMING, an American invention of the early 19th century, utilizes closely spaced, relatively light vertical members (STUDS) and rather thin but deep horizontals (JOISTS) to form the support for the building. 0 porch .pith 71arned Pos %lappoai Fig. 7 Mullion WOODEN HOUSE - ELEVATION riple Bay indoor Wooden houses may be sheathed with any of several types of horizontally LAPPED, or overlapping, wooden siding. CLAPBOARDS are thin, narrow boards about four feet in length, tapered on the upper edge to fit smoothly under the boards above. Early clapboards were always riven, or split with the grain, rather than sawn, but the term is now frequently -used for any type of horizontal wooden siding. WEATHERBOARDS are sawn boards with a beaded edge intended to reduce splintering. SHIPLAP (GERMAN) SIDING is beveled or grooved at the point Of overlap. FLUSH (MATCHED) SIDING has no visible overlap and a line of beading sometimes conceals the joint. - BOARD -AND -BATTEN SIDING is a vertical treatment in which wide boards are nailed edge to edge and the joints covered by narrow strips of wood (BATTENS). WOODEN SHINGLES in a variety of patterns, especially popular in the later 19th century, were applied in straight or wavy (UNDULANT) lines or in alternating rows. Frequently occurring designs include ROUND BUTT or FISH SCALE: FEATHER (with an arrow -shaped end); and STAGGER BUTT, a square cut shingle nailed on in a zigzag pattern. Fig, 7a WOOD SIDING, CROSS SECTIONS A. Clapboards B. Beaded Weatherboards C. Beaded Flush Siding D. Shiplap or German Siding 3 -Bay Colonn Semicircular Arch n��l�11J t-----3-Bay Wing 10 No 3 -Bay Main Block Fig. 8 MASONRY HOUSE - ELEVATION CONSTRUCTION TERMS: MASONRY HOUSES Chimney Stack Parapet •Cornice Lintel —b -over - 6 Light Double - hung Sash —Keystone —Blind 3 - Bay Arcade Rusticated Pilaster Rusticated Base In masonry construction, stone, brick, block or tile is laid in COURSES, or rows, in a particular pattern (BOND) of alternating joints and solid pieces bound with a mixture of sand, cement, lime and water (MORTAR). BRICK BONDS Bricks laid so that their lengthwise faces are visible from the outside of the wall are called STRETCHERS; those whose ends face the outside are HEADERS. The type of bond.is determined by the arrangement of stretchers and headers. AMERICAN or COMMON, BOND has three to seven rows of stretchers between every two courses of headers. ENGLISH BOND alternates one course of headers with one of stretchers. FLEMISH BOND uses headers and stretchers alternately in each course. STRETCHER BOND is composed of all stretchers, while the less frequently encountered HEADER BOND has only headers. A portion of a brick used to even out a course is called a CLOSER. KING CLOSERS are longer than half a brick; QUEEN CLOSERS shorter. Flemish bond sometimes features GLAZED HEADERS, bricks that have taken on a dark and shiny surface in the firing process. Glazed headers are sometimes used to form decorative patterns, -such as DIAPERING, or DIAMONDS, and in DECORATED END houses and barns to spell out the construction date and initials of the owner. Curved cornices and water tables may be made of MOLDED BRICK, shaped before firing. Frequently, cornices are CORBELED, or built out in upside-down steps from the wall surface, using plain brick. RUBBED or GAUGED BRICKS, often found in arches, are shaped by being rubbed against a hard surface. MOUSE-TOOTHING, occasionally seen in Dutch Colonial build- ings, is a pattern made by setting bricks at right angles along the gable edge of the roof. PRESSED BRICK is a late 19th century innovation in which dense, hard bricks with a very smooth surface are machine -formed under pressure, in contrast to the softer bricks formed by the earlier practice of molding the clay under lighter pressure. ROMAN BRICK is a long, slender pressed brick much used in early 20th century building. TERRA COTTA is a cast and fired brick -like material often used to form large, intricately molded exterior decorations. The surface is frequently POLYCHROMED, or decorated in colors, and glazed for durability. 10 h ��_ :ago❑ Bond 9d. 3�ader Bond :�sniar BRICK BONDS AND STONE COURSI- Vu. Zaglt'-jn nvuu 9e. Stretcher Bond 9h. Random Ashlar piB• 99a - 9e Brick Bonding r 9f - 91 Stone Coursing STONE MASONRY 9c. Flemish Bond 9f. Rusticated Ashlar 9i. Coursed Rubble 1MASSEY Stone used in building may be untrimmed, broken FIELDSTONE (RUBBLE) laid in a RANDOM (UNCOURSED) manner. COURSED RUBBLE is arranged in more or less even rows. ASHLAR is stone cut into square or rectangular blocks, laid in random or regular courses. The faces of the blocks may be roughly hewn (ROCK -FACED); cut to suggest a surface full of writhing worms (VERMICULATED); smoothly DRESSED, or finished; or marked with vertical incisions (TOOLED). RUSTICATION, a stoneworking technique often found on the lower stories or in QUOINS at the corners of a building, is identifiable by massive blocks that project markedly from the Plane of the wall and joints. The block faces may have any of the finishes described above, usually with deeply beveled edges. Often a contrasting smooth edge surrounds a patterned block face. Rusticated features may be executed in brick as well as in stone and occa- sionally wooden quoins are found on frame houses. STUCCO, an exterior wall plaster, frequently finishes walls of brick, stone, wood or half-timbering. Examples of COBBLESTONE ROUSES, constructed of smooth, round river rocks, are found in some sections of the country. WATER TABLES, slightly projecting bands of stone or brick designed to throw rain or snow away from the foundations of the building, and BELT (STRING) COURSES, horizontal bands running across the facade and marking a division between.floors, may be made of either brick or stone. 9 Dec Jerkii Gaml Fig. 10 ROOF TYPES ROOFS Mansa J. MA, $" 1 3 The topmost horizontal member of a sloping roof is the RIDGE (or RIDGE POLE). It marks the line where the tops of the supporting members that form the slope of the roof (RAFTERS) meet and is sometimes emphasized by a line of ornamental CRESTING in metal, stone, terra cotta or, occasionally, wood. The external angle formed by the intersection of two non- parallel roof planes is called a HIP; the corresponding inverted angle is a VALLEY. Roof water is channeled safely away from the house through a system of GUTTERS in the valleys and along the edge of the roof, through GUTTERBOXES into the DOWNSPOUTS (LEADERS). The rafters may be exposed on the under side of the overhanging lower edges of the roof (the EAVES), or they may be concealed by the SOFFIT, the finished underside of the eaves. At the gable end they maybe disguised by a BARGE BOARD (VERGE BOARD), an extra, often decora- tive, false rafter set out from the wall surface. In classical styles the line of the barge board may continue part of all of the way across the bottom of the gable as RETURNS that form a triangular pediment. In Gothic Revival houses the barge boards are often flat wooden pieces in an elaborately pierced and scrolled GINGERBREAD design. ROOF TYPES A GABLE (or PITCHED) ROOF forms a peak with a single slope falling away on either side of the ridge. A GAMBREL ROOF breaks the slope on either side of the ridge into two slopes, creating a somewhat bell-shaped profile and providing a bonus of usable space between eaves and rafters. A MANSARD ROOF (sometimes called a FRENCH ROOF) also uses a double slope to create an extra story while minimizing the apparent height of the building. The lower, and usually steeper, slope may be CONCAVE, CONVEX or straight and is pierced by dormer windows for light and ventilation. A HIP (or HIPPED) ROOF slopes in four directions from the flat center section (DECK) formed by the junction of the hips, which may be marked by a low railing (BALUSTRADE) or wall (PARAPET). A HIPPED GABLE (or JERKIN -HEAD) ROOF is a gable roof whose ends have been shortened and sloped backward toward the center of the ridge. A SHED (or LEAN-TO) ROOF has a single outward slope and is generally found on additions such as kitchens and porches that are somewhat lower than the main house. A PENT EAVE is a narrow projection sloping outward from the surface of a wall between two stories. A STEPPED (or CROW -STEPPED) GABLE ascends center at each end of a pitched roof. In the end also extends above the roof itself. L2 in a series of stair -like elements to a flat PARAPET GABLE, the wall surface of the gable �--Weathervane 1i -Story House with 21 --Story Tower Fig. 11 ROOFS AND PORCHES DORMERS AND ROOFTOP PROJECTIONS Finial Cornice Cresting ncave Mansard ,of —Bracketed ii Canopy Veranda or Piazza with Balcony Entrance Porch Fence Railing DORMERS, usually containing a window, are small house -like projections from the slope of a roof that provide light and air to rooms above the eaves. Dormer roofs assume almost any of the shapes taken by main roofs: gable, hip, mansard or shed. Their sides (CHEEKS) are usually treated much like the walls of the house and maybe sheathed with clapboards, often installed in a diagonal pattern to fit the triangular sides of a gabled dormer. Alterna- tively, the cheeks may be covered with shingles or roofing materials. EYEBROW DORMERS are gently arched projections rising only far enough above the roofline to accommodate a small window; they have no cheeks and are covered with roofing materials, ARCH -HEAD DORMERS, often surmounted by a HOOD MOLD (or DRIP MOLD), are considerably larger and more elaborately decorated. A CUPOLA is a small, rooftop structure, usually of square or polygonal design, that admits light and air to the interior of a building. A similar construction with glazed sides is a LANTERN. A BELVEDERE is a larger structure designed primarily to provide a comfortable spot from which to enjoy a striking ,view. A TOWER is a feature that both projects from the main body of the building and rises above the main roofline. A CAMPANILE is a square tower found on houses -in the Italian Villa style. A TURRET is a small,•slender tower at the corner of a building, often supported by corbeled brackets. A SPIRE is a tall, tapered, often conical, tower roof; a PINNACLE is a similarly shaped terminal ornament or protective cap. Both may be decorated by CROCKETS, foliage -like ornaments attached to their sides, and surmounted by a FINIAL, a pointed ornament. CHIMNEYS The entire masonry structure that carries smoke and combustion gases from the fireplace to the outside of the house is the CHIMNEY. The part that is visible above the roof is the CHIMNEY STACK, which contains one or several vertical sections, or FLUES, each leading from a fireplace or furnace. In modern times the flue is lined with_a fireproof material such as tile or metal. (See also FIREPLACES.) The chimney stack may be finished off with a decorative CHIMNEY CAP of corbeled brick or stone, and it may be topped as well by a CHIMNEY POT, a separate decorative extension placed on the flue to promote a stronger draft. In the 19th century chimney pots were often made of cast terra cotta. 13 Cornic Keyston , Gable Dormer Fig. 12 DORMER WINDOWS Shed Dormer Shingle Cheeks Pedsmented Arch -Head Dormers aster rolled nsole 11 diment pled Parapet rnice rieze an Column Entablature laster !red Shutter laster Trim ,e -hung Sash r-6 ad Basement s---- . -. ..1— ♦L auov,u aiiu .JLua ghts Pilaster Trim Tuscan Order Portico (3 bays) 10 Fig. 13 PORCHES AND PORTICOES Hooded Gable Dormer Trussed Projecting Eave Gable Roof—� �'fT C-4 Al Knee brace Stoop Oriel Entrance Porch Fig. 14 VICTORIAN PORCHES & EXTERIOR PARTS PORCHES, PORTICOES, STOOPS AND BALCONIES erkin-Head Gable Roof -=Barge Board ' Brackets e-� h Shed Roof ee Brace Chamfered Post -Veranda or + Piazza Railing A PORCH is an independently roofed area that is attached to a building and provides a sheltered entrance to it. A PORTICO is a porch in one of the classical orders. A MONUMENTAL (or COLOSSAL or TALL or FULL -HEIGHT) PORTICO has columns that rise through two or more stories. VERANDAS and PIAZZAS are porches that stretch along the front, sides or back of the house to form gallery -like living areas outside the main walls. A STOOP is a small exterior stair, generally no wider than one bay, leading to an entrance which may not be protected by a roof. A BULKHEAD is an outside entrance to a cellar, with a sloping cover just above ground level. A BALCONY is a projecting platform, surrounded by a railing, in front of a window or door; it may not have a roof above it and it is not accessible by steps or stairs from the ground. A PORTE-COCHERE is a sheltered area outside an entrance where passengers may enter or leave their vehicle. CORNICES The term CORNICE refers here to the projecting decorative treatment that runs along the top of an exterior wall below the eaves or, on an interior wall, along the ceiling line. Whether it takes the form of a plain box or is enriched with moldings or carvings, a cornice ordinarily has three main parts: a CROWN MOLDING at the top; a BED MOLDING at the bottom; and in the center, a CORONA (or FASCIA), a vertical, often decorated, surface. The fascia and SOFFIT, or finished undersurface, of an enclosed BOX CORNICE may conceal a system of roof gutters. The cornice may be supported by BRACKETS, truss -like devices which may be plain and angular or elaborately scrolled. CONSOLES, which serve a similar purpose, are large, scrolled supports, often heavily carved and embellished. MODILLIONS (BLOCKS) are rectan- gular, box -like supports with plain or decorated under surfaces. DENTILS are smaller, vertical, tooth-like projections. Wooden cornices are usual in houses built throughout the 18th century, although occa- sionally curving COVE CORNICES of plaster are found. PLAIN- or MOLDED -BRICK CORNICES aPPeared about 1810 and became common later in the century. In the late 19th century the use 01 pressed metal or tin cornices that imitated the traditional wooden forms became popular. 15 Plaster Cove Molded Fig. 15 Modillion Dentil Molded Brick TYPICAL VICTORIAN CORNICES Pent Eave BAY WINDOWS AND ORIELS A BAY (or BAY WINDOW) is an outwardly projecting area of a room, curved or angled, which serves to expand the room and admit light and/or air. It shares a foundation with the rest of the house. An ORIEL (or ORIEL WINDOW) is a similar projection, but it extends from the surface of a wall above the foundation and is supported by corbels or brackets. Dentil Cornice Fig. 16 16 ORIEL WINDOW - ELEVATION Top Rail Jamb 1 -over -1 Light Double -hung Sash Meeting Rail Stile Mullion Bottom Rail Sill Scroll Modillion ale 31 d u ORIEL WINDOW - ELEVATION Top Rail Jamb 1 -over -1 Light Double -hung Sash Meeting Rail Stile Mullion Bottom Rail Sill Scroll Modillion ale cig. Flat or Jack , Segmental ARCHES ARCHES ;IT b3 In masonry costruction an ARCH is an.arrangement of wedge-shaped stones or bricks (VOUSSOIRS) set above an opening to distribute the downward thrust of weight from the surrounding wall. The central voussoir is the KEYSTONE. With the exception of the FLAT (or JACK) ARCH, which is laid in a straight line, most arch forms are based on some portion of a curve or circle, as their names suggest: ROUND, or SEMICIRCULAR; ELLIPTICAL, or SEMI - ELLIPTICAL; SEGMENTAL, a curve encompassing less than a semicircle. The OGEE ARCH takes its name from the combination of convex and concave curves of which it is made. Among several forms of the POINTED ARCH (any of which may be called a GOTHIC ARCH), the most common are the BLUNT POINTED ARCH, in which the height of the arch at its central point Is less than the distance across its base; the EQUILATERAL POINTED ARCH, in which the two distances are equal; and the LANCET ARCH, in which the height of the arch at its central Point is greater than the distance across its base. A BLIND ARCH (usually a segmental arch) is often built into a wall surface with no relationship to an opening, in order to strengthen the wall or to provide decoration on the surface. A RELIEVING ARCH is a segmental, usually blind, arch placed above the lintel of a door or window to relieve the lintel of the full weight of the will. A series of arches is an ARCADE. 17 FRONTISPIECE DETAIL OF CAPITAL AND PEDIMENT Fig. 18 DOORS AND DOORWAYS ce )ugewo. 111ion Ped imen�. Fanligh Capital Fluting Jamb Base Plinth 8 -PANEL DOOR WITH PEDIMENTED FRONTISPIECE A DOORWAY is an opening in an exterior or interior wall that allows passage from one side to the other. It may or may not contain a door. A DOOR FRAME, like a window frame, has a HEAD across the inside at the top and JAMBS along each of its inner sides. The SILL (DOORSILL, THRESHOLD), or horizontal member at the bottom of the frame, is not properly part of the frame itself. The door, if there is one, is hinged to one jamb and locks into the jamb on the other side of the frame. Like a window frame, a door frame may also have an ARCHITRAVE trim, molded or not. Alternatively the top of the opening may be spanned by a simple lintel.. The principal entrance to a building may be marked by a FRONTISPIECE, a decorative doorway ensemble that may include a pediment, entablature, columns, pilasters and other elements of a classical order, as well as a transom or fanlight and sidelights. (See WINDOWS.) In PANELED DOORS, sheets of wood are held in a framework of wooden uprights (STILES) and horizontals (RAILS). THe LOCI{ RAIL, set at a convenient height somewhat more than half -way up the door, holds the lock. PANELING may be raised, flush, sunk or flat; with or without moldings. (See WOODWORK.) Six -panel doors are sometimes referred to as CROSS -AND -BIBLE (or CHRISTIAN) DOORS. BOARD -AND -BATTEN DOORS are composed of boards placed vertically, or sometimes diagonally, and held together by nailed -on horizontal cleats. FRENCH DOORS are fully -glazed double doors. 18 - a inclusive term for all the parts relating to a wall opening that provides 11:tit and out_. sir *.o the interior of a building. {{II:UOW FRAME is the structural assembly that holds the SASH in which panes of glass are set. The inner, topmost framing member of the window frame is the HEAD; the ,sLom one is the SILL; the inner sides are the JAMBS. gat: �e SASH is constructed of horizontal RAILS and vertical STILES that. form a movable frame •VItbin which smaller framing members (MUNTINS) hold the panes of glass. a4WLLIONS are •,ba'vier, uaright members or piers dividing the window into two or more parts. Windows are betimes described in terms of the type of sash and the number of lights they contain, as, 41 al'' for example, six -over -six -light, double -hung, wooden sash. CASEMENT (or FRENCH) WINDOWS are usually constructed in two vertical sections that swing -e in or out on hinges set into the widow jambs. LEADED casement windows with wooden frames in ng ., Vhich the lights were separated by lead CAMES, or bars, were largely supplanted at the end of the 17th century by double -hung windows, although casements reappeared in some revival styles of the 19th and 20th centuries. DOUBLE -HUNG WINDOWS have two sections of sash set one above the other; one or both sections slide up and down to permit the window to be opened. By the end of the 19th century double -hung windows with frames made entirely of iron appeared, followed shortly by steel frames. Stone window frames may be found in some Victorian houses. The ARCHITRAVE is the decorative trim surrounding the top and sides of the frame. (A DLAIN FRAME has no architrave.) Projecting moldings above arched windows (HOOD MOLDS, DRIPSTONES), rectangular stone LABELS or actual HOODS or CANOPIES may add both embellishment and protection from dripping eater. Although the simple rectangle surmounted by a lintel is by far the most common window shape, ARCH -HEAD WINDOWS in virtually every arch form abound. (See ARCHES.) The PALLADIAN WINDOW is a triple window with a large, arched center section flanked by smaller rectangular windows. Its prototype, the VENETIAN WINDOW, may not have a center arch, CIRCULAR WINDOWS range from the relatively unpretentious OCULUS (or BULL'S-EYE) to the ROSE (or WHEEL, or CATHERINE WHEEL) WINDOW, in which the muntins are arranged to suggest the spokes of a wheel. TREFOIL and QUATREFOIL WINDOWS have three and four curving lobes, respectively, arranged around the perimeter of the.circle. A FANLIGHT is a fixed, semicircular or semi -elliptical window above a door, often exhibiting tracery; a TRANSOM, usually rectangular, may pivot or swing out on hinges to provide ventilation. A SIDELIGHT is one of a pair of narrow windows beside a door. Windows may be fitted inside or out with additional sets of paired closures (SHUTTERS) for extra protection from the elements. PANELED SHUTTERS are like small doors excluding light and air entirely when they are closed; LOUVERED SHUTTERS keep out wind and water while admitting light and air through fixed.or movable horizontal slats. Early shutters pivot on pins (PINTELS) set into iron eyelets; later ones are hinged. When shutters are open they are geld in place against the wall with SHUTTERDOGS (or HOLDBACKS): when closed, they are secured by latches. FIREPLACES FIREPLACE is the inclusive term for the area in which domestic fires are burned. The FIREBOX, the actual site of the fire, is recessed within the opening and connected to the FLUE. (See CHIMNEYS.) A plain or decorative cast-iron plate (FIREBACK) often protects the rear wall of the firebox from excessive heat. The readily visible parts of the fireplace include: the JAMBS (CHEEKS), or sides, of the fireplace; the HEARTH, usually of masonry, which protects the floor in front of it; the SURROUND, an area of plaster, brick, stone or tile around the opening proper; and, on top, a MANTEL or MANTELPIECE, sometimes with a MANTELSHELF and ornamental paneling on the wall projection into which the fireplace is set (CHIMNEY BREAST). A full mantelpiece ensemble may include supporting pilasters, columns and moldings and may be enriched by frieze motifs such as FRETWORK patterns of thin wood applied to the surface. (See also MOLDINGS, CLASSICAL ORDERS.) It may also include a paneled OVERMANTEL sometimes containing, especially in early construction, a LANDSCAPE PANEL enclosed within a molded or decorated frame and intended to be painted with a decorative scene. Victorian overmantels frequently include a mirror and bracketed shelves. 19 Fretwork Frieze— Fluted rieze—"Fluted Pilaster Fireplace with Mantel 6 -Panel Door ("Cross -&-Bible") Fig. 19 FIREPLACE, WOODWORK & DOORS - 18TH CENTURY Cor"ize Broken Pedimen Shouldered Architrave Rim or Box Lock —Chair Rail Paneled — Wainscot -Panel -Baseboard i Rampai Handrail CORNICE Baluster Ceiling i Cornice - IiaNDRaL i z 0 U) -- - Pediment Ease Shouldered Architrave- Top rchitrave Top Rail w Muntin Newel U Pane FARTIAL Ll Rail SECTION AT Meeting LANDING Stile Bottom Open Nosing Sill - Rail String Riser. Ramp I T 1i '{ Pilaster Tread �t; Panel �JJ; Baseboard ��-`-- I Scrol gg,;it Floor lII� J� I Fig. 20 20 STAIRCASE, WOODWORK & WINDOW nt STAIRCASES STAIRCASES are sets of steps that provide access from one floor or level to another. The steps are composed of a horizontal surface (TREAD) resting on a vertical member (RISER) and ,joined at the ends to a STRING (or STRINGER), a sloping framing board. The staircase may have an OPEN STRING, with the edges of the steps exposed, or a CLOSED STRING, with the steps concealed. Closed -string stairs may be'decorated by moldings on -<he string, open -string stairs by simple or ornate carved or cast brackets. Treads are often finished with a half -round molding.(NOSING) at the front and end edges. A STAIR RAIL encompasses a series of vertically arranged supports (BALUSTERS, or BANIS- TERS) that carry a HANDRAIL (also sometimes called, inaccurately, a banister) and end ina large NEWEL, or terminal post, at the bottom of the staircase. A LANDING is a platform between FLIGHTS, or RUNS, of steps, providing a means of changing the direction of the stairs. Stairs may also be turned by means of WINDERS, wedge-shaped treads at a curve or corner. OPEN WELL (or OPEN NEWEL) stairs are built around an empty central space; CLOSED WELL stairs wind around a central post, as in the case of the DOGLEG STAIR, which is built in two parallel runs. SPIRAL (or GEOMETRICAL STAIRS) and ROUNDED STAIRS are both curving stairs that turn with winders. WOODWORK, DECORATIVE TREATMENTS AND WALL FINISHES Finished WOODWORK may be as elaborate as full paneling from floor to ceiling, or as plain as a simple BASEBOARD (MOPBOARD, SPLASHBOARD) at the junction of wall and floor with, perhaps, an unembellished CORNICE where the ceiling meets the wall. A common addition might be the low vertical paneling or boarding referred to as a WAINSCOT (or DADO, or WAINSCOTING), topped by a CHAIR RAIL, a plain or molded strip intended to keep the wall from being damaged by the backs of the chairs. Wainscoting of narrow vertical boards is sometimes called WASHBOARDS or CAR SIDING. Paneling is generally arranged in a pattern of panels held in place by uprights (STILES) and horizontals (RAILS). It may be enriched with pilasters, moldings and other decorative features. In RAISED PANELING, the central portion of the panel (the FIELD) is raised above the edges that fit into the rails and stiles. SUNK PANELING is recessed from the edges. FLAT PANELING is level across the field, but still on a different plane than the rails and stiles. FLUSH PANELING has no shaped field at all but simply a panel that fits even with the rails and stiles. The fields of the panels may be enriched with moldings or carvings. LINENFOLD PANELING, for example, is carved to imitate vertical folds of fabric. MOLDINGS Cornice Cove Drapes Sconce. Fireplace With Mante Columns & Tile Surro Chair Rail Paneled- Wainscot, Baseboard= Paneled Overmantel �s F Plaster Medallion Chandelier or gasoiier Frieze I Picture Mold Pilaster Trim, Eastlake Style �rl Fig. 21 VICTORIAN DECORATIVE TREATMENTS Although most frec. atly found on ceilings, ORNAMEh.L PLASTERWORK often embellishes cornices and walls as well. The most common plaster ornament is perhaps the CEILING MEDS LION (CENTERPIECE, ROSE), often centered by a chandelier or, in Victorian times, a gasol? The COVE, a concave wall area just below the main cornice of a room, is often executed ir. Plaster. Ceilings are most often of plaster, but they may also be of BOARDS or they may have EXPOSED BEAMS separating areas of plaster or board. A pattern of exposed cross beams res in a COFFERED CEILING. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, panels of PRESSED TIN or of lineoleum-like ANAGLYPTA or WALTON LINCRUSTA were used to simulate applied plaster decorations on walls ceilings. The latter two products frequently imitated leather or wood finishes as well. Paneled woodwork was sometimes painted to resemble fine wood (GRAINED); or, by means similar painting and glazing process, MARBLED to look like stone. Plain painted walls we sometimes enlivened by STENCILED borders or overall patterns traced from templates and painted in contrasting colors. , MOLDINGS CYMA RECTA (or CYMA, or CROWNMOLD) molding has concave curve in its u curve at the bottom. CYMA REVERSA (OGEE) molding reverses that Peer half, a con molding is a nearly quarter -round, concave molding,pattern. h OVOLO (COVE) convex, nor with QUARTER ROUND, a very small versionofthebovolo?used with OVOLO, which SCOTIA is a concave, nearly parabolic molding often found between large, convex, semi- circular TORUS moldings at the bases of columns. A BEAD is a very small semicircle. BEAD -AND -REEL molding combines semicircular forms with discs. EGG -AND -DART molding is a repetitive pattern of alternating ovals and arrows. Torus Quirk Ovolo & Be: Bead Quirk Ogee Cavetto Egg -and -Dart Bead -and -Reel Conge Fillet Greek Key Ovolo O Pilaster Trim with Corner Block Quarter Round Cyma Recta =:7 Scotia Cyma Reversa (Ogee) Echinus Fig. 22 MOLDINGS =J -MASSE 22 a CLASSICAL ORDERS OF ARCHITh--URE L- er. classical architecture, the term ORDER refers to the basic structural system of the Greek temple, from which the style and decoration of the building derive. An order includes a COLUMN, or cylindrical upright member composed of a capital, shaft and base, as well as an entablature and pedestal appropriate to the order to which the column belongs. ults An ENTABLATURE is the horizontal grouping of elements just above the column capitals. Its primary components,.from bottom to top, are the ARCHITRAVE, the FRIEZE (often decorated) and the CORNICE. A PEDESTAL"is a molded block on which a column rests. It also has its own set of end elements: a SURBASE, or top molding; a DADO, or flat middle surface; and a BASE. The Greeks used three orders, listed here in ascending order of complexity with their :)f a most easily recognizable features: -e DORIC. Simple, rather stout, fluted column shaft; plain molded capital; no base. IONIC. Slender, fluted column shaft; capital formed of VOLUTES, or scroll -shaped ornaments; has base. .rex CORINTHIAN. Slender, fluted column shaft; elaborate, floriated capitals with acanthus leaf decoration; has base. .s The Romans contributed two more orders: the TUSCAN, similar to the Doric, but with an unfluted column shaft and a simple base;. and the COMPOSITE, which blends the floral elements of the Corinthian capital and the volutes of the Ionic. The GOTHIC COLUMN, formed of bundles of two or more slender, attached columns, and the thick and massive ROMANESQUE COLUMN found their way into American building with the revival styles of the late 19th century. Examples of Egyptian, Moorish and other column types are less frequently found. °d PILASTERS, flat, column -like features that are attached to walls, and PIERS, masonry supports for arches, are treated decoratively in the same manner as columns. 9.1 :LASSICAL ORDERS OF ARCHITECTUR EDER I r� y Crown v 'i Corona c c� 0 v 0—Bed= _ 0 � N 4-3 �, an c 0 4-1 cd W N -14 U .-1 a m V C 4-) 0� Q m m Tcd W ORDS$ jeo�Cyma Rent Fillet Corona — Ovolo Cyma Reversa TUSCAN ORDER Torus